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Higher R-values reduce conductive losses in winter, directly lowering heating loads. Reflective roofs and tinted glazing reduce solar gain, more relevant in cooling-dominated climates. Fans affect comfort but not heat transfer. CEA training stresses insulation upgrades for heating efficiency.

Thermal energy storage, often in the form of chilled water or ice tanks, allows facilities to shift cooling loads from peak hours to off-peak hours when electricity rates are lower. This reduces demand charges and balances grid loads. It does not reduce lighting loads or generate renewable electricity, and it supplements but does not fully replace boilers. CEA exam objectives highlight energy storage as a critical demand-side management strategy.

Air sealing directly reduces infiltration losses, improving HVAC efficiency. Roof coatings address radiant loads, insulation reduces conduction, and ceiling fans only improve comfort without reducing infiltration. CEA auditors prioritize infiltration control as one of the lowest-cost, highest-impact envelope improvements.

Benefit-Cost Ratio compares the present value of program benefits to costs. A ratio above 1.0 indicates a cost-effective program. While IRR, payback, and net-to-gross may be used internally, regulators emphasize BCR for policy approval. CEA auditors should understand BCR in both project-level and program-level contexts.

Power factor correction reduces reactive power, allowing more efficient use of electrical supply and lowering penalties from utilities. It doesn’t affect lighting quality, insulation, or HVAC airflow. CEA auditors assess power factor to recommend capacitors or other correction devices.