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Specialized nurses provide education on colostomy care, odor management, appliances, and lifestyle adaptation. The CCMA should coordinate referral and provide reassurance. Ignoring or minimizing concerns worsens anxiety and reduces quality of life.

Nonmaleficence means avoiding harm. Beneficence is doing good, autonomy is respecting patient decisions, and justice ensures fairness. Together, these principles guide medical ethics.

Hemoglobin A1c reflects average blood glucose over 2–3 months, making it essential for monitoring diabetes management. Fasting and random glucose measure immediate levels, and OGTT diagnoses diabetes but does not assess long-term control.

The liver produces bile, which emulsifies fats for digestion. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, the pancreas secretes enzymes, and the small intestine absorbs nutrients.

Artificial active immunity occurs when a vaccine stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies. Natural active arises from actual infection, natural passive from maternal antibodies, and artificial passive from injected antibodies (e.g., immune globulin).