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Cognitive restructuring challenges and modifies irrational beliefs. Reflection (A) validates feelings, free association (C) is psychoanalytic, and paradoxical intention (D) exaggerates symptoms to reduce anxiety.

The preoperational stage (ages 2–7) features symbolic play, egocentrism, and limited logical reasoning. Sensorimotor (A) is infancy. Concrete operational (C) emphasizes logic about tangible objects. Formal operational (D) involves abstract thought.

Planned happenstance emphasizes using unplanned events as opportunities. Career maturity (A) is Super’s concept, adaptability (C) is newer terminology for readiness, and role salience (D) refers to importance of life roles. Counselors help clients reframe chance events as growth opportunities.

The Strong Interest Inventory aligns with Holland’s RIASEC codes. Myers-Briggs (B) assesses personality types (Jungian theory). MMPI (C) measures psychopathology. TAT (D) explores motives through storytelling.

Single-group pretest–posttest designs show change but lack control, limiting internal validity. They are not inherently expensive (A), do measure change (C), and do not require random assignment (D).